Kaplan + Sadock's Synopsis of Psychiatry, 11e

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31.13a  Separation Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, and Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

emotional skills and diminish aggressive behavior among nor- mal populations of school-age children. School settings can also use behavioral techniques to promote socially acceptable behav- ior toward peers and to discourage covert antisocial incidents. Psychopharmacologic Interventions Efficacy of psychopharmacologic interventions includes sev- eral placebo-controlled studies of risperidone for aggression in youth associated with disruptive behavior disorders, and/or mental retardation. In addition, risperidone has been found to be superior to placebo in reducing aggressive behavior in a large 6-month placebo-substitution study. One randomized double- blind placebo-controlled trial with quetiapine also showed effi- cacy for aggressive behavior. Early studies of antipsychotics, most notably haloperidol (Haldol), reported decreased aggres- sive and assaultive behaviors in children with a variety of psychiatric disorders. Atypical antipsychotics risperidone (Risp- erdal), olanzapine (Zyprexa), quetiapine (Seroquel), ziprasidone (Geodon), and aripiprazole (Abilify) have generally replaced the older antipsychotics in clinical practice due to their comparable efficacy and improved side effect profiles. Side effects of second- generation antipsychotics include sedation, increased prolactin levels, (with risperidone use) and extrapyramidal symptoms, including akathisia. In general, however, the atypical antipsy- chotics appear to be well tolerated. A study of divalproex in youth with conduct disorder showed that those who responded most robustly exhibited aggression characterized by agitation, dysphoria, and distress. Although early trials suggested that carbamazepine (Tegretol) was useful to control aggression, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study did not show superiority of carbamazepine over placebo in decreasing aggression. A pilot study found that clonidine (Catapres) may decrease aggression. The SSRIs, including fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), and citalopram (Celexa), are used clinically to target symptoms of impulsivity, irritability, and mood lability, which frequently accompany conduct disorder. Conduct disorder often coexists with ADHD, learning disorders, and, over time, mood disorders and substance-related disorders; thus, the treat- ment of concurrent disorders must also be addressed. R eferences Boxer P, Huesmann LR, Bushman BJ, O’Brien M, Moceri D. The role of violent media preference in cumulative developmental risk for violence and general aggression. J Youth Adolesc. 2009;38:417–428. Canino G, Polanczyk G, Bauermeister JJ, Rhode LA, Frick P. Does the prevalence of conduct disorder and ODD vary across cultures? Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2010;45:695–704. Correll CU, Kratochvil CJ, March J. Developments in pediatric psychopharmacol- ogy: Focus on stimulants, antidepressants, and antipsychotics. J Clin Psychia- try. 2011;72:655–670. Dodge KA & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. The effects of the Fast Track Preventive Intervention on the development of conduct disorder across childhood. Child Develop. 2011;82:331–345. Harden KP, D’Onofrio BM, Van Hulle C, Turkheimer E, Rodgers JL, Waldman ID, Lahey BB. Population density and youth antisocial behavior. J Child Psychol and Psychiatry. 2009;50:999–1008. HuebnerT,VloetTD, Marx I, Konrad K, Fink GR, Herpetz SC, Herpetz-Dahlmann B. Morphometric brain abnormalities in boys with conduct disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47:540–547. Lochman JE, Powell NP, Boxmeyer CL, Jimenez-Camargo L. Cognitive-behav- ioral therapy for externalizing disorders in children and adolescents. Child Ado- lesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2011;20:305–318. Meier MH, Slutske WS, Heath AC, Martin NG. Sex differences in the genetic and environmental influences on childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial behavior. J Abnorm Psychol. 2011;120:377–388.

Murray J, Farrington DP. Risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency: Key findings from longitudinal studies. Can J Psychiatry. 2010;55:633–642. Padhy R, Saxena K, Remsing L, Heumer J, Plattner B, Steiner H. Symptomatic response to divalproex in subtypes of conduct disorder. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2011;42:584–593. Reyes M, Buitelaar J, Toren P, Augustyns I, Eerdekens M. A randomized, dou- ble-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone maintenance treatment in children and adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163:402–410. Rutter M. Research review: child psychiatric diagnosis and classification: Con- cepts, findings, challenges and potential. J Child Psychol and Psychiatry. 2011; 52:647–660. Sasayam D, Hayashida A, Yamasue H, Yuzuru H, Kaneko T, Kasai K, Washizuka S, Amano N. Neuroanatomical correlates of attention-deficit-hyperactivity dis- order accounting for comorbid oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disor- der. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2010:64:394–402. Santesso DL, Reker DL, Schmidt LA, Segalowitz SJ. Frontal electroencephalo- gram activation asymmetry, emotional intelligence, and externalizing behaviors in 10-year-old children. Child Psychiatr Hum Dev 2006;36:311–328. Van Huylle CA, Waldman ID, D’Onofrio BM, Rodgers JL, Rthouz PJ, Lahey BB. Developmental structure of genetic influences on antisocial behavior across childhood and adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009;118:711–734. Zahrt DM, Melzer-Lange MD. Aggressive behavior in children and adolescents. Pediatr Rev. 2011;32:325–331. Zuddas A, Zanni R, Usala T. Second generation antipsychotics (SGAs) for non- psychotic disorders in children and adolescents: A review of the randomized controlled studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2011;21:600–620.

▲▲ 31.13 Anxiety Disorders of Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence

Anxiety disorders are among the most common disorders in youth, affecting 10 to 20 percent of children and adolescents. Although observable anxiety behaviors mark normative devel- opment in infants, anxiety disorders in childhood predict a wide range of psychological difficulties in adolescence including additional anxiety disorders, panic attacks, and depressive dis- orders. Fear is an expected response to real or perceived threat; however, anxiety is the anticipation of future danger. Anxiety disorders are characterized by recurrent emotional and physi- ological arousal in response to excessive perceptions of per- ceived threat or danger. Anxiety disorders commonly found in youth include separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and selective mutism. Anxiety is classified into disorders based on how it is experienced, the situations that trigger it, and the course that it tends to follow.

31.13a Separation Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, and Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

Separation anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and social anxiety disorder in children are often considered together in the evaluation process and differential diagnosis, and in developing treatment strategies, because they are highly comor- bid and have overlapping symptoms. A child with separation