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31.2  Assessment, Examination, and Psychological Testing

Table 31.1-13 Juvenile Sex Offender Subtypes

one tattoo, and 26.9 percent report at least one body piercing, other than in their ear lobe, at some point in their lives. Both tattoos and body piercing are more common in girls than in boys. Adolescents who endorsed possession of at least one tattoo or body piercing are more likely to endorse use of gate- way drugs (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana), as well as experi- ence with hard drugs (cocaine, crystal methamphetamine, and ecstasy). R eferences Blackmore SJ. Development of the social brain in adolescence. J R Soc Med. 2012;105:111–116. Blair C, Raver CC. Child development in the context of adversity: Experiential canalization of brain and behavior. Am Psychol. 2012;67:309–318. Bonanno RA, Hymel S. Cyber bullying and internalizing difficulties: Above and beyond the impact of traditional forms of bullying. J Youth Adolesc. 2013; 42:685–697. Briggs GG. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2005. Brown GW, Ban M, Craig TKJ, Harris TO, Herbert J, Uher R. Serotonin trans- porter length polymorphism, childhood maltreatment and chronic depression: A specific gene-environment interaction. Depress Anxiety. 2013:5–13. Burgess AW, Garbarino C, Carlson MI. Pathological teasing and bullying turned deadly: Shooters and suicide. Victims & Offenders. 2006;1:1–14. Burnett S, Sebastian C, Kadosh KC, Blakemore SJ. The social brain in adoles- cence: Evidence from functional magnetic resonance imaging and behavioural studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2011;35:1654–1664. Doyle AB, Markiewicz D. Parenting, marital conflict and adjustment from early- to mid-adolescence: Mediated by adolescent attachment style? JYouth Adolesc. 2005;34(2):97–110. Giedd JN. The digital revolution and adolescent brain evolution. J Adolesc Health. 2012;51:101–105. Gordon MF. Normal child development. In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P, eds. Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. 9 th ed. Vol. 2 Phila- delphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009:3338. Hemphill SA, Kotevski A, Tollit M, Smith R, Herrenkohl TI, Toumbourou JW, Catalano RF. Longitudinal predictors of cyber and traditional bullying perpe- tration in Australian secondary school students. J Adolesc Health. 2012;51: 59–65. Karatoreos IN, McEwen BS. Annual research review: The neurobiology and physiology of resilience and adaptation across the life course. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013;54:337–347. Ladouceur CD, Peper JS, Crone EA, Dahl RE. White matter development in ado- lescence: The influence of puberty and implications for affective disorders. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2012;2:36–54. Obradovic J. How can the study of physiological reactivity contribute to our under- standing of adversity and resilience processes in development? Dev Psycho- pathol. 2013;24:371–387. Pataki CS. Adolescent Development In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P, eds. Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry. 9 th ed. Vol. 2. Phila- delphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2009:3356. Van den Bergh BR, Mulder EJ, Mennes M, Glover V. Antenatal maternal anxiety and stress and the neurobehavioural development of the fetus and child: Links and possible mechanisms. A review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2005;29(2):237– 258. Willoughby T, Good M, Adachi PJC, Hamza C, Tavernier R. Examining the link between adolescent brain development and risk taking form a social-develop- mental perspective. Brain and Cogn. 2013;83:315–323. Wright MF, Li Y. Kicking the digital dog: A longitudinal investigation of young adults’ victimization and cyber-displaced aggression. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2012;15:448–454.

Juvenile Offenders Who Sexually Offend against Peers or Adults Predominantly assault females and strangers or casual acquaintances Sexual assaults occur in association with other types of criminal activity (e.g., burglary). Have histories of nonsexual criminal offenses, and appear more generally delinquent and conduct disordered Commit their offenses in public areas Display higher levels of aggression and violence in the commission of their sexual crimes More likely to use weapons and to cause injuries to their victims Juvenile Offenders Who Sexually Offend against Children Most victims are male and are related to them, either siblings or other relatives. Almost half of the offenders have had at least one male victim. The sexual crimes tend to reflect a greater reliance on opportunity and guile than injurious force. This appears to be particularly true when their victim is related to them. These youths may “trick” the child into complying with the molestation, use bribes, or threaten the child with loss of the relationship. Within the overall population of juveniles who sexually assault children are certain youths who display high levels of aggression and violence. Generally, these are youths who display more severe levels of personality and/or psychosexual disturbances, such as psychopathy, sexual sadism, and so on. Suffer from deficits in self-esteem and social competency Many show evidence of depression. Characteristics Common to Both Groups High rates of learning disabilities and academic dysfunction (30 to 60 percent) The presence of other behavioral health problems, including substance abuse, and disorders of conduct (up to 80 percent have some diagnosable psychiatric disorder) Observed difficulties with impulse control and judgment abused as children. Most teenagers ran away from home and were taken in by pimps and substance abusers; the adoles- cents themselves then became substance abusers. Twenty- seven percent of teenage prostitution occurs in large cities, and incidents usually take place at an outside location, such as highways, roads, alleys, fields, woods, or parking lots. Teen- age prostitutes are at high risk for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and many (up to 70 percent in some stud- ies) are infected with HIV. As many as 17,500 individuals are smuggled into the United States each year as “sex slaves.” They are brought under the pretenses of a better life and job opportunities, but once they are in the United States, they are forced into prosti- tution, making little money while traffickers make thousands of dollars from their services. Many times they are raped and abused. Tattoos and Body Piercing.  Body piercing and tat- toos have become more prevalent among adolescents since the 1980s. In the general population, approximately 10 to 13 percent of adolescents have tattoos. Of the more than 500 adolescents surveyed in a study, 13.2 percent report at least

▲▲ 31.2 Assessment, Examination, and Psychological Testing

A comprehensive evaluation of a child is composed of interviews with the parents, the child, and other family members; gathering information regarding the child’s current school functioning;