AAOS Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4: Print + Ebook (AAOS - American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons)

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Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4

Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4 Volume 1 EDITOR Geoffrey S. Marecek, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor

Director, Limb Reconstruction Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

Wolters Kluwer Health Brian Brown, Director, Medical Practice Tulie McKay, Senior Content Editor, Acquisitions Stacey Sebring, Senior Development Editor Sean Hanrahan, Editorial Coordinator Marisa Solorzano-Taylor, Editorial Coordinator Kristen Watrud, Product Marketing Manager Alicia Jackson, Senior Production Project Manager Stephen Druding, Manager, Graphic Arts & Design Margie Orzech-Zeranko, Manufacturing Coordinator TNQ Technologies, Prepress Vendor

Board of Directors, 2023-2024 Kevin J. Bozic, MD, MBA, FAAOS President Paul Tornetta III, MD, PhD, FAAOS First Vice President Annunziato Amendola, MD, FAAOS Second Vice President Michael L. Parks, MD, FAAOS Treasurer Felix H. Savoie III, MD, FAAOS Past President Alfonso Mejia, MD, MPH, FAAOS Chair, Board of Councilors Joel L. Mayerson, MD, FAAOS Chair-Elect, Board of Councilors Michael J. Leddy III, MD, FAAOS Secretary, Board of Councilors Armando F. Vidal, MD, FAAOS Chair, Board of Specialty Societies Adolph J. Yates Jr, MD, FAAOS Chair-Elect, Board of Specialty Societies Michael P. Bolognesi, MD, FAAOS Secretary, Board of Specialty Societies Lisa N. Masters Lay Member Evalina L. Burger, MD, FAAOS Member at Large Chad A. Krueger, MD, FAAOS Member at Large Toni M. McLaurin, MD, FAAOS Member at Large Monica M. Payares, MD, FAAOS Member at Large Thomas E. Arend Jr, Esq, CAE Chief Executive Officer (ex-officio)

The material presented in the AAOS Comprehensive Orthopae dic Review 4 has been made available by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) for educational purposes only. This material is not intended to present the only, or necessarily best, methods or procedures for the medical situations discussed, but rather it is intended to represent an approach, view, state ment, or opinion of the author(s) or producer(s), which may be helpful to others who face similar situations. Medical providers should use their own, independent medical judgment, in addi tion to open discussion with patients, when developing patient care recommendations and treatment plans. Medical care should always be based on a medical provider’s expertise that is individ ually tailored to a patient’s circumstances, preferences and rights. Some drugs or medical devices demonstrated in AAOS courses or described in AAOS print or electronic publications have not been cleared by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or have been cleared for specific uses only. The FDA has stated that it is the responsibility of the physician to determine the FDA clearance status of each drug or device he or she wishes to use in clinical practice and to use the products with appropriate patient consent and in compliance with applicable law. Furthermore, any statements about commercial products are sole ly the opinion(s) of the author(s) and do not represent an AAOS endorsement or evaluation of these products. These statements may not be used in advertising or for any commercial purpose. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. AAOS does not grant permission for AAOS-owned content to be ingested into any AI chatbot, unless approved. ISBN 978-1-9752-1340-4 Library of Congress Control Number: Cataloging in Publication data available on request from publisher. Printed in Mexico Published 2025 by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons

Staff American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Anna Salt Troise, MBA, Chief Commercial Officer Hans Koelsch, PhD, Director, Publishing Lisa Claxton Moore, Senior Manager, Editorial Steven Kellert, Senior Editor 9400 West Higgins Road Rosemont, Illinois 60018 Copyright 2025 by the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

Acknowledgments

Editorial Board, AAOS Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review, Fourth Edition

Editor Geoffrey S. Marecek, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Director, Limb Reconstruction Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Section Editors Nathanael D. Heckmann, MD (General Knowledge) Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Elizabeth B. Gausden, MD, MPH (Hip and Knee) Assistant Attending Orthopedic Surgeon Hospital for Special Surgery New York, New York Chad A. Krueger, MD, FAAOS (Hip and Knee) Associate Professor Rothman Orthopaedic Institute Sidney Kimmel Medical College Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Jaimo Ahn, MD, PhD, FAAOS (Basic Science) Gehring Professor Associate Chair of Orthopaedic Surgery Chief of Orthopaedic Trauma University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan John Elfar, MD, FAAOS (Basic Science)

Adult Reconstruction Division Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Lisa A. Taitsman, MD, MPH, FAAOS (General Knowledge) Professor, Department of Orthopaedics University of Washington Harborview Medical Center Seattle, Washington Jason W. Savage, MD (Spine) Associate Professor Cleveland Clinic Center for Spine Health Cleveland, Ohio Gregory D. Schroeder, MD (Spine) Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Tenured Professor and Chair Department of Orthopaedics University of Arizona College of Medicine—Tucson Tenured Chair of Orthopaedics Banner University Medical Center Tucson, Arizona Sara Edwards, MD, FAAOS (Shoulder and Elbow)

Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Shoulder Arthroplasty and Sports Medicine University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California Matthew Saltzman, MD, FAAOS (Shoulder and Elbow) Professor, Orthopaedic Consultant, Chicago Cubs Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Evanston, Illinois

Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Megan Conti Mica, MD, FAAOS (Hand and Wrist) Associate Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery and Rehabilitation Medicine Division of Medicine and Biological Sciences University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois Luke Thomas Nicholson, MD (Hand and Wrist) Assistant Professor of Clinical Orthopaedic Surgery Associate Program Director of the Residency Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California

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Acknowledgments

Julius A. Bishop, MD, FAAOS (Trauma) Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University School of Medicine Orthopaedic Trauma Surgeon

Vehniah Tjong, MD, FRCSC, FAAOS (Sports Medicine) Associate Professor Sports Medicine and Arthroscopy Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, Illinois Rachel Y. Goldstein, MD, MPH, FAAOS (Pediatrics) Director of Hip Preservation Associate Professor, Pediatric Orthopaedics Children’s Hospital Los Angeles Los Angeles, California Claire Shannon, MD (Pediatrics) Orthopaedic Surgery Paley Institute West Palm Beach, Florida Cara A. Cipriano, MD, MSc, FAAOS (Oncology) Associate Professor and Chief, Orthopaedic Oncology Director, Undergraduate Medical Education Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Kenneth R. Gundle, MD, FAAOS (Oncology) Associate Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Oregon Health & Science University Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Portland VA Medical Center Operative Care Division Portland, Oregon University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University Medical Center Palo Alto, California Sean T. Campbell, MD (Trauma) Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, Davis Sacramento, California Brian Weatherford, MD, FAAOS (Foot and Ankle) Orthopaedic Trauma Foot and Ankle Surgery Illinois Bone and Joint Institute Glenview, Illinois Jonathan R. Kaplan, MD, FAAOS (Foot and Ankle) Partner, Orthopaedic Specialty Institute Orthopaedic Surgeon Hoag Orthopedic Institute Orange, California Kristofer J. Jones, MD, FAAOS (Sports Medicine) Associate Professor Orthopaedic Surgery Sports Medicine Head Team Physician, Los Angeles Lakers Team Physician, UCLA Bruins Los Angeles, California

AAOS Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4

Contributors

Oussama Abousamra, MD Assistant Professor in Orthopedic Surgery Department of Orthopedic Surgery Children’s Hospital Los Angles University of Southern California Los Angeles, California Lesley Abraham, MD Acting Assistant Professor Department of Rehabilitation Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Samuel B. Adams, MD, FAAOS, FAOA Associate Residency Program Director Director of Foot and Ankle Research Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Duke University Medical Center Morrisville, North Carolina Abhinav Agarwal, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

William R. Aibinder, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan Michael J. Alaia, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor of Orthopedic Surgery Co-Director, Sports Medicine Fellowship Director of Orthopedic CME Team Physician, U.S. Ski and Snowboard NYU Langone Health NYU Langone Orthopedic Center New York, New York Alexander W. Aleem, MD, MSc, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Andrea I. Alford, PhD Research Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Michigan Medical School

University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Alabama Aouod Agenor, MD Fellow, Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery Department of Orthopaedics University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine Miami, Florida Christopher S. Ahmad, MD, FAAOS Head Team Physician, New York Yankees Chief, Sports Medicine Service Vice Chair of Clinical Research Center for Shoulder, Elbow and Sports Medicine Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery Center for Shoulder, Elbow and Sports Medicine Columbia University Medical Center New York Presbyterian Hospital New York, New York Jaimo Ahn, MD, PhD, FAAOS Gehring Professor and Chief of Orthopaedic Trauma Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Biomedical Engineering University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor, Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan R. Kiran Alluri, MD Assistant Clinical Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery USC Spine Center Keck Medical Center of USC Los Angeles, California John G. Anderson, MD, FAAOS Professor, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine Professor, Michigan State University Osteopathic Medical School Department of Orthopedic Surgery Co-Director, Grand Rapids Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Fellowship Grand Rapids, Michigan Paul A. Anderson, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Rehabilitation University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health Madison, Wisconsin Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

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Contributors

Armin Arshi, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery

Jenna Bernstein, MD Attending Surgeon Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Connecticut Orthopaedics Trumbull, Connecticut Mitchell Bernstein, MD, FRCSC, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Surgery and Pediatric Surgery Division of Orthopaedic Surgery McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada Mohit Bhandari, MD, PhD, FRCSC Distinguished University Professor and Chair Department of Surgery McMaster University Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Jesse E. Bible, MD, MHS, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedics Penn State Health Medical Center Hershey, Pennsylvania Allen T. Bishop, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery Department of Neurosurgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Philip E. Blazar, MD, FAAOS Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Donald R. Bohay, MD, FAAOS, FACS Professor, Michigan State University College of Human Medicine Professor, Michigan State University Osteopathic Medical School Department of Orthopedic Surgery Co-Director, Grand Rapids Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Fellowship Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Brigham Health

NYU Langone Health New York, New York Edward A. Athanasian, MD, FAAOS Professor of Clinical Orthopaedic Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Hospital for Special Surgery Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center New York, New York George Athwal, MD, FRCSC, FAAOS Orthopaedic Surgeon, Professor Roth McFarlane Hand and Upper Limb Centre St. Joseph’s Health Care Western University London, Ontario, Canada Ali Azad, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery

New York University New York, New York Donald S. Bae, MD, FAAOS Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Boston Children’s Hospital Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Julian Bailes, MD Clinical Professor Department of Neurosurgery NorthShore University Health System Evanston, Illinois Courtney D. Bell, MD Orthopedic Surgeon OrthoCollier Naples, Florida John-Erik Bell, MD, MS, FAAOS Professor of Orthopaedics Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Lebanon, New Hampshire Gregory C. Berlet, MD, FAAOS Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Center Worthington, Ohio Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts

Grand Rapids, Michigan Daniel D. Bohl, MD, MPH Assistant Professor

David N. Bernstein, MD, MBA, MEI Orthopaedic Surgery Resident Physician Harvard Combined Orthopaedic Residency Program Allegheny Health Network Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023 Department of Orthopedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Chicago, Illinois Matthew G. Bologna, MD Department of Orthopedic Surgery

Massachusetts General Hospital Brigham and Women’s Hospital Boston, Massachusetts

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Michael P. Bolognesi, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedics Duke University Durham, North Carolina Sofia Bougioukli, MD, PhD Hand Fellow Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan David M. Brogan, MD, MSc, FAAOS Associate Professor

Peter N. Chalmers, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Caitlin C. Chambers, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery

University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota Jimmy J. Chan, MD Clinical Fellow

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Matthew L. Brown, MD Attending Surgeon, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cooper University Hospital

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, Massachusetts Emilie Cheung, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Shoulder and Elbow Service Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford, California Cara A. Cipriano, MD, MSc, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Assistant Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Cooper Medical School of Rowan University Camden, New Jersey William D. Bugbee, MD, FAAOS Clinical Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Scripps Clinic/Scripps Clinic Medical Group Fellowship Director, Joint Reconstruction Chief, Joint Preservation and Cartilage Restoration Service Clinical Director of Orthopaedic Research Scripps Clinic La Jolla, California Kevin M. Casey, MD, FAAOS Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Kaiser Permanente Riverside, California Thomas D. Cha, MD, MBA Assistant Chief, Orthopedic Spine Service Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Harvard Medical School Massachusetts General Hospital

University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania John C. Clohisy, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Anna Cohen-Rosenblum, MD, MSc, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center New Orleans, Louisiana Peter A. Cole, MD, FAAOS Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Boston, Massachusetts Jorge Chahla, MD, PhD Assistant Professor

University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota HealthPartners Orthopaedics Regions Hospital St. Paul, Minnesota Wesley K. Cox, MD, FAAOS

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Midwest Orthopedics at Rush Chicago, Illinois Joe Chakkalakal, PhD Associate Professor Duke University School of Medicine Assistant Professor, Section Chief Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Medical Director, University of Arkansas Athletics Fayetteville, Arkansas Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023 Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery and Cell Biology Orthopaedic, Developmental, and Genome Laboratories Durham, North Carolina

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Charles Daly, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor

Sherilyn DeStefano, MD Department of Family Medicine Division of Sports Medicine

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, South Carolina Suhas P. Dasari, MD Orthopedics and Sports Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Malcolm R. DeBaun, MD Assistant Professor Director of Orthopaedic Trauma Associate Residency Program Director Duke University Durham, North Carolina Brent R. DeGeorge Jr, MD, PhD Associate Professor Hand Fellowship Director Department of Plastic Surgery University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Kate E. Delaney, MD Assistant Professor Department of Rehabilitation Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Alejandro Gonzalez Della Valle, MD, FAAOS Chief of the Hip Service – Hospital for Special Surgery Eduardo A. Salvati Professor of Clinical Orthopaedic Surgery Weill Medical College of Cornell University New York, New York Craig J. Della Valle, MD, FAAOS Aaron G. Rosenberg Endowed Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Chicago, Illinois Patrick J. Denard, MD, FAAOS Oregon Shoulder Institute Southern Oregon Orthopedics Medford, Oregon Jaime Denning, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center University of Cincinnati School of Medicine Cincinnati, Ohio University of California Los Angeles, California Marvin E. Dingle, MD Assistant Professor Uniformed Services University - Uniformed Services University Walter Reed Department of Surgery Walter Reed National Military Medical Center Bethesda, Maryland Seth D. Dodds, MD, FAAOS, FAOrthA Professor and Chief, Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery Associate Program Director, Department of Orthopaedics University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine Miami, Florida Nicholas C. Duethman, MD Sports Medicine/Shoulder and Elbow Fellow OrthoCarolina Charlotte, North Carolina Calvin J. Duffaut, MD Departments of Family Medicine and Orthopaedics UCLA Division of Sports Medicine Santa Monica, California Christopher J. Dy, MD, MPH, FAAOS, FACS Associate Professor Hand and Microsurgery Fellowship Director Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Jeffrey S. Earhart, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Rush University Orthopaedic Trauma Service OrthoIllinois Rockford, Illinois Mark E. Easley, MD, FAAOS Foot and Ankle Orthopaedic Surgeon Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

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Contributors

Jonathan G. Eastman, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine UT Health Houston-McGovern Medical School Houston, Texas Edward Fakhre, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery MedStar Georgetown University Hospital Washington, DC Yale A. Fillingham, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Rothman Orthopaedic Institute Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Philadelphia, Pennsylvania David C. Flanigan, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Director Cartilage Restoration Program The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center Jameson Crane Sports Medicine Institute Columbus, Ohio Jared R. H. Foran, MD, FAAOS Orthopaedic Surgeon Panorama Orthopedics and Spine Center Golden, Colorado John R. Fowler, MD, FAAOS Assistant Dean for Medical Student Research Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Rachel M. Frank, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor, Orthopaedic Surgery

Michael J. Gardner, MD, FAAOS Professor and Vice Chair Chief, Orthopaedic Trauma Service Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University Stanford, California John M. Garlich, MD, MHDS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Joshua L. Gary, MD, FAAOS, FAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Weston B. Gentry, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences Little Rock, Arkansas Charles L. Getz, MD, FAAOS Rothman Orthopaedic Institute The Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Leah Gitajn, MD, MS, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedics Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth Lebanon, New Hampshire Michael Githens, MD, FAAOS

Associate Professor Orthopaedic Surgery

Director, Joint Preservation Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Colorado Aurora, Colorado Mark J. Gage, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Division of Orthopaedic Traumatology R Adams Cowley Shock Trauma Center Department of Orthopaedics University of Maryland School of Medicine Baltimore, Maryland Bethany Gallagher, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Haborview Medical Center University of Washington

Seattle, Washington Peter A. Gold, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Panorama Orthopedics and Spine Center Golden, Colorado

Charles A. Goldfarb, MD, FAAOS Professor and Executive Vice Chair Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee

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Contributors

Joshua T. Goldman, MD, MBA Assistant Clinical Professor Departments of Family Medicine and Orthopedic Surgery Division of Sports Medicine

Kenneth R. Gundle, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Oregon Health and Science University Portland VA Medical Center Portland, Oregon Jacques H. Hacquebord, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor New York University New York, New York Raymond Hah, MD, FAAOS Assistant Clinical Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery USC Spine Center Keck Medical Center of USC Los Angeles, California Andrea Halim, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Chief, Division of Hand Surgery Department of Orthopedic Surgery Department of Anesthesiology Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Justin M. Haller, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Nady Hamid, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Atrium Health Musculoskeletal Institute Shoulder and Elbow Center OrthoCarolina Charlotte, North Carolina Kurt D. Hankenson, DVM, PhD Henry Ruppenthal Family Professor Orthopaedic Surgery and Bioengineering Associate Chair for Research Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Michigan Medical School Ann Arbor, Michigan Charles P. Hannon, MD, MBA Assistant Professor Yale School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut Melanie Hall, MD

University of California Los Angeles, California L. Henry Goodnough, MD, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University Redwood City, California Matthew L. Goodwin, MD, PhD Assistant Professor

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri David A. Goss Jr, DO Associates in Orthopedics and Sports Medicine Dalton, Georgia Michael B. Gottschalk, MD, CAQ, FAAOS, FAOA Associate Professor Emory University Atlanta, Georgia Elizabeth A. Graesser, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri George D. Graham, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Atrium Health Musculoskeletal Institute Charlotte, North Carolina Gregory Gramstad, MD, FAAOS Rebound Orthopedics Vancouver, Washington Jonathan N. Grauer, MD, FAAOS Professor and Director of the Orthopaedic Spine Service Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Chief of Hand and Upper Extremity Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Yale School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut Gligor Gucev, MD, EdD Professor, Department of Anesthesiology University of Southern California Los Angeles, California Department of Orthopedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

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Contributors

Erik N. Hansen, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor

Grant D. Hogue, MD, FAAOS Instructor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Boston Children’s Hospital Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Katharine Hollnagel, MD Department of Orthopedic Surgery University Hospitals Assistant Professor, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio Andrew J. Holte, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center Lebanon, New Hampshire Patrick Horrigan, MD Orthopedic Trauma Surgeon Sanford Orthopedics and Sports Medicine Sioux Falls, South Dakota Jason E. Hsu, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Sports Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Casey Jo Humbyrd, MD, MBE, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Kelly K. Hynes, MS, MD, FAAOA, FAOA, FRCSC, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California Carl M. Harper, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Departement of Orthopaedic Surgery

Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Jonah Hebert-Davies, MD, FAAOS Orthopedic Trauma and Shoulder and Elbow Specialist Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Harborview Medical Center University of Washington Seattle, Washington Nathanael D. Heckmann, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Curtis M. Henn, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery MedStar Georgetown University Hospital Washington, DC Mario Hevesi, MD, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Timothy E. Hewett, PhD Professor and Director of Research Department of Orthopaedics Marshall University Huntington, West Virginia Krystin A. Hidden, MD Assistant Professor, Orthopaedic Trauma Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Alan S. Hilibrand, MD, MBA, FAAOS The Joseph and Marie Field Professor of Spine Surgery Vice Chair, Academic Affairs and Faculty Development Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Sidney Kimmel Medical College Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Rehabilitation Medicine The University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois Kenneth David Illingworth, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Paul M. Inclan, MD

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Contributors

Jaclyn M. Jankowski, DO Director, Quality and Performance Improvement Division of Orthopaedic Trauma and Adult Reconstruction

Safdar N. Khan, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedics The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center Columbus, Ohio Zeeshan A. Khan, BA Department of Orthopedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Chicago, Illinois Jason Khoury, MDCM, FRCSC Orthopaedic Surgery Fellow Roth McFarlane Hand and Upper Limb Centre St-Joseph’s Health Care Western University London, Ontario, Canada Michael L. Knudsen, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Center for Shoulder, Elbow and Sports Medicine Columbia University Medical Center New York Presbyterian Hospital New York, New York Marc S. Kowalsky, MD, MBA, FAAOS ONS Foundation for Clinical Research and Education Orthopaedic and Neurosurgery Specialists Greenwich, Connecticut Akshay R. Krishnan, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Arkansas for the Medical Sciences Little Rock, Arkansas

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cooperman Barnabas Medical Center Jersey City Medical Center - RWJBH

Livingston, New Jersey Hayden L. Joseph, MD Christus Trinity Clinic Longview, Texas

Kathryn Jurenovich, DO Orthopedic Spine Surgeon Department of Orthopaedics Southwoods Health Boardman, Ohio

Sanjeev Kakar, MD, MBA, FAAOS, FAOA Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Robin Kamal, MD, MBA, MS, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Stanford University Stanford, California Daniel J. Kaplan, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery New York University Grossman School of Medicine New York, New York Vasili Karas, MD, MS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Midwest Orthopaedics at Rush Chicago, Illinois James A. Keeney, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri Patrick J. Kellam, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery UT Health Houston Houston, Texas Michael W. Kessler, MD, MPH, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery MedStar Georgetown University Hospital Washington, DC

Ny-Ying Lam, MD Assistant Professor Department of Rehabilitation Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Thomas M. Large, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Emory University Grady Memorial Hospital Atlanta, Georgia Alexander Lauder, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Denver Health Medical Center University of Colorado School of Medicine Denver, Colorado Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

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Chad D. Lavender, MD Assistant Professor Orthopaedics Sports Medicine Marshall University Huntington, West Virginia Nels D. Leafblad, MD Sports Fellow Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah

Elizabeth G. Lieberman, MD Associate Surgeon

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Orthopaedic and Fracture Specialists Portland, Oregon Jay R. Lieberman, MD, FAAOS Professor and Chair Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Professor of Biomedical Engineering Viterbi School of Engineering of USC Los Angeles, California Carol A. Lin, MD, MA, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Johnny L. Lin, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor

James Learned, MD, FAAOS Associate Clinical Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, Irvine Orange, California Francis Y. Lee, MD, PhD, FAAOS Wayne O Southwick Professor of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Biomedical

Engineering, Pathology Yale School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut Simon Lee, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Chicago, Illinois Kenneth M. Lin, MD Division of Sports Medicine Department of Orthopedic Surgery Stanford University Redwood City, California Frank A. Liporace, MD, FAAOS Chairman and Senior Vice President Chief, Orthopaedic Trauma and Adult Reconstruction Division of Orthopaedic Trauma and Adult Reconstruction

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Rush University Medical Center Chicago, Illinois Yu-Po Lee, MD, FAAOS Clinical Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, Irvine Orange, California Philipp Leucht, MD, FAAOS

Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cooperman Barnabas Medical Center Jersey City Medical Center – RWJBH

Raj-Sobti-Menon Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery New York University Grossman School of Medicine New York, New York Fraser J. Leversedge, MD, FAAOS Professor and Chief: Section of Hand, Wrist and Elbow Surgery Department of Orthopedic Surgery University of Colorado School of Medicine Aurora, Colorado Richard L. Lieber, PhD Chief Scientific Officer and Senior Vice President Shirley Ryan Ability Lab Professor of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering Northwestern University Stanford University Stanford, California Alayna E. Loiselle, PhD Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Physical Performance University of Rochester Medical Center Rochester, New York Xuan Luo, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation Yale School of Medicine New Haven, Connecticut Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023 Livingston, New Jersey Yusha Liu, MD, PhD Hand Surgery Fellow

Senior Research Career Scientist Edward Hines Jr. VA Hospital Chicago, Illinois

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Contributors

C. Benjamin Ma, MD, FAAOS V-nee Yeh Endowed Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Vice Chairman, Adult Clinical Operations Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California David R. Maish, MD, FAAOS Department of Orthopedics and Sports Medicine Frederick Health Medical Group

Yousef Marwan, MD, FRCSC Assistant Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery

Limb Lengthening, Reconstruction and Bone Infection Knee Injuries, Arthroscopy and Joint Preservation College of Medicine, Kuwait University Al-Razi Orthopaedic Hospital Kuwait City, Kuwait Bogdan A. Matache, MDCM, FRCSC, Dip Sport Med Orthopaedic Surgeon Department of Surgery, Hôpital Enfant-Jésus Laval University Quebec City, Quebec, Canada Travis H. Matheney, MD, MLA, FAAOS Child and Young Adult Hip Preservation Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Boston Children’s Hospital Boston, Massachusetts Stephanie W. Mayer, MD Associate Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery University of Colorado Aurora, Colorado Yeshuwa Mayers, MD, MBA Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Geisinger Health System Danville, Pennsylvania Philip K. McClure, MD, FAAOS Director of the International Center for Limb Lengthening Rubin Institute for Advanced Orthopedics Sinai Hospital of Baltimore Baltimore, Maryland Erin Meisel, MD, FAAOS Clinical Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC and Children’s Hospital Los Angeles Los Angeles, California Cory Meixner, MD Department of Orthopedic Surgery

Frederick, Maryland Gabriel Makar, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Geisinger Health System Danville, Pennsylvania

Azeem Tariq Malik, MBBS Department of Orthopaedics The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center Columbus, Ohio

Enzo S. Mameri, MD, MSc Knee Surgery Group Staff

Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP) Instituto Brazil de Tecnologia da Saúde (IBTS) São Paulo, Brazil Peter J. Mandell, MD, FAAOS, FACS Private Practice in Orthopedics California Qualified Medical Evaluator Burlingame, California Lucas S. Marchand, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Utah Salt Lake City, Utah Geoffrey S. Marecek, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Director, Limb Reconstruction Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Case Martin, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Texas Health San Antonio San Antonio, Texas

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Contributors

Melodie F. Metzger, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Max P. Michalski, MD, MSc Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center

Thomas Edward Mroz, MD, FAAOS Chairman, Orthopedic and Rheumatologic Institute Director, Spine Research Lab Department of Orthopedic and Neurological Surgery Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio Raman Mundi, MD, MSc, PhD(c), FRCSC Assistant Professor Department of Surgery Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre University of Toronto

Los Angeles, California Emily M. Miller, MD Assistant Clinical Professor Departments of Family Medicine and Orthopaedics UCLA Division of Sports Medicine Santa Monica, California Gary A. Miller, MD, FAAOS Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis Veterans Affairs Medical Center St. Louis, Missouri Anas A. Minkara, MD Orthopedic Surgeon Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, Ohio Michelle Mo, MD, PhD Instructor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Toronto, Ontario, Canada John W. Munz, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Chief of Orthopedic Trauma Department of Orthopedic Surgery UT Health Houston Houston, Texas

Surena Namdari, MD, MSc, FAAOS Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Fellowship Director Co-Director of Shoulder and Elbow Research Rothman Orthopaedic Institute Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Jeffrey J. Nepple, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Division of Pediatric and Adolescent Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, Missouri Mai P. Nguyen, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery

Boston Children’s Hospital Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Nicole I. Montgomery, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Texas Children’s Hospital Baylor College of Medicine Houston, Texas Stephanie N. Moore-Lotridge, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee Marie T. Morris, MD Assistant Professor University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota Anne E. C. Nichols, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Physical Performance University of Rochester Medical Center Rochester, New York Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023 Department of Orthopedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri

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Contributors

L. Reid Boyce Nichols, MD, FAAOS, FAOA Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgeon Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Nemours Children’s Health Wilmington, Delaware Luke Thomas Nicholson, MD

Javad Parvizi, MD, FAAOS, FRCS James Edwards Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Rothman Orthopaedic Institute

Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Ignacio Pasqualini, MD Oregon Shoulder Institute Southern Oregon Orthopedics Medford, Oregon Arpan Ajit Patel, MD Department of Neurological Surgery Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio Rina P. Patel, MD Assistant Professor of Clinical Radiology Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California Joseph T. Patterson, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Monica Payares, MD, FAAOS, FAAP Pediatric Orthopaedic Surgeon Medical Director Cerebral Palsy and Neuromuscular Program Orthopedic, Sports Medicine and Spine Institute Nicklaus Children’s Hospital Clinical Assistant Professor Orthopaedic Surgery Florida International University- Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Miami, Florida

Assistant Professor of Clinical Orthopaedic Surgery Associate Program Director of the Residency Program Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Wendy M. Novicoff, PhD Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery and Public Health Sciences University of Virginia Charlottesville, Virginia Ryan M. Nunley, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor

Department of Orthopedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Regis J. O’Keefe, MD, PhD, FAAOS Chair and Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Washington University in St. Louis St. Louis, Missouri Reza Omid, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Keck School of Medicine of USC Los Angeles, California Jonas Owen, MD Assistant Professor in Orthopedic Surgery Department of Orthopedic Surgery Children’s Hospital Los Angeles University of Southern California Los Angeles, California Don Y. Park, MD, FAAOS Orthopaedic Spine Surgeon David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Los Angeles, California Paul J. Park, MD Assistant Professor Department of Neurological Surgery

Dominic Pelle, MD Orthopedic Surgeon

Cleveland Clinic Cleveland, Ohio Glenn B. Pfeffer, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Cedars-Sinai Medical Center Los Angeles, California Terrence Philbin, DO, FAAOS Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Center Worthington, Ohio Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

Weill Cornell Medicine New York, New York

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Contributors

Cameron Phillips, MD Oregon Shoulder Institute Southern Oregon Orthopedics Medford, Oregon Stephan G. Pill, MD, MSPT, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of South Carolina-Greenville School of Medicine Associate Fellowship Director Steadman Hawkins Clinic of the Carolinas Prisma Health-Upstate Greenville, South Carolina Kornelis Poelstra, MD, PhD, FAAOS President, National Robotic Spine Institute Orthopaedic and Neurological Spine Surgeon The Rothman Institute Jersey City, New Jersey CarePoint Health Hoboken, New Jersey Gregory G. Polkowski, MD, MSc, FAAOS

Nicole Reams, MD, FAAN Senior Clinician Educator Department of Neurology NorthShore University HealthSystem Evanston, Illinois Benjamin F. Ricciardi, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of Rochester School of Medicine Rochester, New York David R. Richardson, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Biomedical Engineering University of Tennessee-Campbell Clinic Memphis, Tennessee E. Greer Richardson, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Biomedical Engineering University of Tennessee-Campbell Clinic Memphis, Tennessee K. Daniel Riew, MD, FAAOS Co-Chief, Och Spine Department of Neurological Surgery Weill Cornell Medicine New York, New York David Ring, MD, PhD, FAAOS Associate Dean for Comprehensive Care Professor of Surgery Courtesy Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences Courtesy Professor of Health Social Work Dell Medical School The University of Texas Austin, Texas Scott B. Rosenfeld, MD, FAAOS Associate Professor Orthopaedic Surgery

Associate Professor and Vice Chair Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Vanderbilt University Medical Center Nashville, Tennessee

Benjamin K. Potter, MD, FAAOS, FACS Norman M. Rich Professor and Chair Uniformed Services University - Uniformed Services University Walter Reed Department of Surgery Walter Reed National Military Medical Center

Bethesda, Maryland Nicholas Pulos, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopedic Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Steven M. Raikin, MD, FAAOS Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Sydney Kimmel College of Medicine Thomas Jefferson University Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Wendy Ramalingam, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Baylor College of Medicine Texas Children’s Hospital Houston, Texas

Howard D. Routman, DO, FAAOS Director, Palm Beach Shoulder Service The Orthopedic Foundation Atlantis Orthopedics Palm Beach Gardens, Florida Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center University of Cincinnati College of Medicine Cincinnati, Ohio

AAOS Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4

Contributors

Milton Lee (Chip) Routt Jr, MD Professor and the Dr. Andrew R. Burgess Endowed Chair Department of Orthopedic Surgery and Sports Medicine UT Health Houston-McGovern Medical School Houston, Texas

Brian Schmidtberg, MD Hand and Upper Extremity Fellow Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, Massachusetts Jonathan G. Schoenecker, MD, PhD, FAAOS Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Vanderbilt University Medical Center Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology Microbiology and Immunology Vanderbilt Center for Bone Biology Department of Pharmacology Verena Schreiber, MD, FAAOS Pediatric Orthopedic Surgeon Orthopedic, Sports Medicine and Spine Institute Nicklaus Children’s Hospital Clinical Assistant Professor Orthopaedic Surgery Florida International University-Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine Miami, Florida Gregory D. Schroeder, MD Associate Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Sidney Kimmel Medical College Thomas Jefferson University Hospital Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Andrew M. Schwartz, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa John A. Scolaro, MD, MA, FAAOS Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, Irvine Orange, California Arya Nick Shamie, MD, FAAOS Professor and Chief Orthopaedic Spine Surgery Department of Orthopaedic Surgery David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA Vanderbilt University Nashville, Tennessee

Tamara D. Rozental, MD, FAAOS Chief, Hand and Upper Extremity Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery Harvard Medical School Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center Boston, Massachusetts William Runge, MD Department of Orthopaedics Emory University Atlanta, Georgia Noelle L. Van Rysselberghe, MD Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

Stanford University Stanford, California Augustine M. Saiz Jr, MD Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery University of California, Davis Sacramento, California Khaled J. Saleh, MD, MSC, FAAOS, FRCSC, MHCM Clinical Professor Department of Surgery Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Clinical Professor Surgical Sciences College of Medicine at Central Michigan University Mount Pleasant, Michigan Lifetime Associate National Research Council National Academies of Science Washington, DC

Vincent James Sammarco, MD, FAAOS Beacon Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine Cincinnati, Ohio Jason W. Savage, MD Associate Professor Center for Spine Health Cleveland Clinic

Arjun Saxena, MD, MBA, FAAOS Rothman Orthopaedic Institute Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Shadley C. Schiffern, MD, FAAOS OrthoCarolina Ventura Orthopedics Ventura, California Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023 Los Angeles, California Behnam Sharareh, MD Shoulder and Elbow Surgery

Shoulder and Elbow Center Charlotte, North Carolina

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Contributors

Edie P. Shen, MD General Internal Medicine Harborview Medical Center University of Washington Seattle, Washington

Clay A. Spitler, MD, FAAOS Vice Chair for Clinical Affairs Orthopaedic Trauma Fellowship Director Associate Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery

University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, Alabama Michael P. Steinmetz, MD William P. and Amanda C. Madar Endowed Professor and Chairman of Neurological Surgery Director, Center for Spine Health Neurological Institute Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine Cleveland, Ohio Jeffrey G. Stepan, MD, MSc Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and General Internal Medicine Harborview Medical Center University of Washington Seattle, Washington Michael Suk, MD, JD, MPH, MBA, FAAOS, FACS Professor and Chairman Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Geisinger Health System Danville, Pennsylvania Linda Suleiman, MD, FAAOS Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine Chicago, Illinois Karen M. Sutton, MD, FAAOS Associate Attending Rehabilitation Medicine The University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois Scott C. Stroup, MD

Seth L. Sherman, MD, FAAOS Division of Sports Medicine Department of Orthopedic Surgery Stanford University Redwood City, California Alexander Y. Shin, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Orthopedic Surgery Department of Neurosurgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Rachel S. Silverstein, MD, MBS Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery Fellow Pediatric Orthopedic Surgery Texas Children’s Hospital Houston, Texas David L. Skaggs, MD, FAAOS

Director, Spine Center of Excellence Executive Vice-Chair, Orthopaedics Director, Pediatric Orthopaedics Professor, Department of Orthopaedics, Pediatrics and Neurosurgery Cedars Sinai Health System Los Angeles, California Mark Sommerfeldt, MD, MPH, FRCSC Assistant Clinical Professor Division of Orthopaedic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry Adjunct Professor, School of Public Health

University of Alberta Edmonton, Alberta Rebecca Speckman, MD, PhD Assistant Professor Department of Rehabilitation Medicine University of Washington Seattle, Washington Samantha A. Spencer, MD, FAAOS Assistant Professor Department of Orthopaedic Surgery Boston Children’s Hospital Harvard Medical School Boston, Massachusetts Robert J. Spinner, MD, FAAOS Professor, Department of Neurosurgery Department of Orthopedic Surgery Mayo Clinic Rochester, Minnesota Department of Orthopedics Hospital for Special Surgery New York, New York Ryan Sutton, MD Rothman Orthopedic Institute Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Dane Swinehart, MD Advanced Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine Orthopedic Centers of Colorado Denver, Colorado Jennifer Tangtiphaiboontana, MD Assistant Professor University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, California Copyright © Wolters Kluwer, Inc. Unauthorized reproduction of the content is prohibited. 2023

AAOS Comprehensive Orthopaedic Review 4

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